The Americas as Part of the Pacific and Pacific Rim as a Logical  World Historiographical Unit for discussing the Neolithic 25,000 BC to Precolumbian 1500 AD 

The Americas' common cultural typography/morphology with East and Southeast Asia, and Oceania.  A need to recognize unique/characteristic material and technological aesthetic linguistic commonalities regardless of the question of causal relations within the Pacific arena, vis a vis other major geographical regions such as the Atlantic, Mediterranean-Middle Eastern-African, Eurasian, Indian Ocean, or other such conceptual ecumenes of interaction.   Linguistic Morphological constructions Maya and Japanese, kanji and Maya hieroglyphics, pottery and jade urn shapes, and Haniwa and jomon dogu and figurines not limited to valdivia, Kukulcan (at Chichen Itza) serpent architectural motif use on stairs and those in SE Asia.  Climatological and geographical affinities, in sharing jungle habitats as SE Asia and Central America, in their proximity to a shared ocean body, southern, or equitorial  hemispherical orientation.   A exploded version of the Mediterranean.  Where cultures are certainly different from each other, but yet, relatively speaking, share more in common with each other than, the nations of the pacific rim.       

 

Cyclogenesis of civilization and cultures.  Level of complexity of cultural formation and civilizational progress akin to cyclogenesis in complexity of critical factors and their dynamic movement, yet somehow the present conception of progress is a simplistic linear conception of science / technology building on science / technology.    

The Olmec as the Classical Age

Realism, Expressionism, expressive, personality, effective conveyance,  which shares something with the best Moche portraiture.

Zones of Civilizational Development

Level I  Monumental architecture and complex societies--Mesoamerica and Central Andes and its coast.

Level II 
a. the Intermediate Area--material cultural development/confluence and medium pop. density--Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Columbia, and especially Ecuador. 
b. Bordering zones of radiating culture to the South--Southern Bolivia, Northern Chile, Northwestern Argentina.  c. Bordering zones of cultural radiation to the North--North Mexico (Paquime) to US Southwest, Gulf of Mexico up to southern Midwest US--Pueblo Bonito (Chaco Canyon, NM), Cliff Palace (Mesa Verde, southwesternmost CO)/ White House (Chelly Canyon, AZ),  Cahokia (southernmost Illinois), Moundville (Alabama), Emerald Mound (Mississippi),Poverty Point (Louisiana), etc.  d. East of Yucatan Caribbean Islands--Taino and Arawak.  Extending to or extending from the Marajoara and Maraca at the mouth of the Amazon, and the Santarem Cutures of the lower Amazon river in northeast Brazil.  i.e. the Amazon delta, the Rio Xingu region.

Level II c. reflects often smaller scale versions of what is found in Mesoamerica---such as Emerald Mound, with its primary 'pyramid' and secondary pyramid facing it, with many much smaller platforms forming a central plaza. Likewise at Moundville.  Cahokia has a primary pyramid reminiscent of the Temple of the Moon at Teotihuacan, and also surrounded by lesser elevated platforms, also on a slightly off true north axis, and also with a prominent east west axis.   
In Level II. a. cultures such as on the isthumus such as Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia, Power and culture was more dispersed and disparate vs. the Mayan centers which were more mutually conscious and influencing.  though they over time came to share the traits of human sacrifice, burial goods, ceramics, etc.  Level II a. reflects a mix of Mayan and Andean sculptural elements, the isthumus also with its gold burial goods like that of South America as well as the Musica of Colombia but especially in Ecuador the Mayan element is noticeable.   Level II.b Areas such as NW Argentina have a rich ceramic tradition, as well as the Caribbean Taino. 
 
Level III. Outlier/Fringe low pop. density-- Far North--US/Canada, Far South--Patagonia, Far East--Amazonia, Venezuela, Guyana.  And highly shamanistic centered and influenced in decisions and thinking.   Certain areas characterized by high level of artisanship and linguistic diversity, such as the areas near the Pacific from Northern California to the Canadian Pacific Northwest, and in the deep Amazon in what is now central western Brazil.   Where communities tended to live independently limiting their interactions to ritualistic war and trade, without creating large centrally controlled polities.

The recognizable Inheritance of the Earliest Civilizations and the Prototypical parallel development of Theocracies and Warrior lead Communities.  

From South American preceramic coastal Caral to ceramic midland mountain Kotosh to ceramic/stone sculpturing Chavin (Cupisnique-Cerro Sechin) 2700BC - 200BC.  Mesoamerican Coastal Olmec, midland mountain Monte Alban, circular platforms (reminiscent of the Olmec) of Cuicuilco and Xochitecatl

Early Totemic animal/anthropomorphic structures in stone--Chavin Lanzon (Peru) to San Augustin (Colombia) ca. 1000BC.  Valdivia (Ecuador) to Chavin/Cupisnique (Peru) incised monocrome pottery and stone bowls, stirrup wares. 

The development of Cross continental cultural parallels including 

voluntary/honorary as well as forced/humiliatory or abject sacrifice,  as public spectacle occurring on stepped pyramidal architecture (in predominantly red) with plazas.  ritual combat with losers as sacrificial victims as Moche and Aztec.  Throwing/dropping.tumbling down of newly killed sacrificial victims from such pyramids as Maya or Aztec or rock cliffs  as the Moche in Peru.   Temple complexes with two primary pyramids, major and minor  (i.e. the Moche Huaca del Sol vs. Huaca de Luna as in Peru vs  Teotihuacan Pyramide del Sol & Pyramide de la Luna, or even Emerald Mound though the two are facing each other rather than at near right angles to each other as with the other two).   Rectangular wedding cake style of Stepped Pyramidal construction from Teotihuacan and Monte Alban in Mesoamerica to even the Akapana pyramid of Tiwanaku in Bolivia, which was created with large stone slabs creating inward slanting outer surfaces for each level.  

parallels of dress and adornment as nose rings, extremely large spreading and tall gold headgear, cranial deformation, skeleton head necklaces (aguateca shell necklace MN 15359,  house of the scribe) ,

animal-animal and animal-human combinations/merging/transformations/sculptural and ceramic representations especially involving feline/bird/serpent/human combinations and transformations.

Special prominence of Jaguar/feline as sculpted in large preclassical stone monuments, Peru chavin-cupisnique,  olmec in Guerrero as in ballcourt relief at Teopantecuanitlan vs. Raimondi stelae slab with pouting jaguar-humanoid face holding sprouting corn husks in each hand close to chest, along with other parallels such as sunken rectangular courts with feline/humanoid protruding heads in various degrees of (shamanic?) transformation.

 Not simply the ample use of use of skull symbolism as representing venerated gods and spirits and not evil or death fearfully, and use of multiple skulls as religious artistic elements such as Skull arrays such as otherwise 'Wall of Skulls' at the Tzompantli shrine at the Aztec Templo Mayor.    

Sculptural symbolism of serpent/feline or other tubular bodied being with heads at both ends in combination with human figures or as part of a larger sculptural element.    

Prominence of Twins in formative, cosmological myths among Inca, Maya, Aztec, and throughout tribes of Central and South America.

Trial and error of the gods in the making of humans, and not omniscent, omnipresent, nor omnipotent. 

 

Belief in deformity as a sign of divinity, as in Palenque's rulers,  Lord Pacal(born AD 603)'s beheaded uncle's clubfoot was considered a divine attribute.  Pacal's mother had an enlarged skull from acromegaly also considered divine.  Pacal flaunted his own clubfoot of proof of his divine desceent and the clubfoot was symbolized in maya art as a serpent and symbol of rulership at Palenque--blue guide p796.  Likewise in the Andes, the Moche and Inka saw deformities not only human but plant mutations or abnormalities as divine; branching, split, multiknobbed and odd shaped cobbs and potatoes considered sacred.

Large stone slab incised stone slab images of monte alban danzantes sacrificial victims and Cerro Sechin warriors and sacrificial victims and Palenque palace stone slabs in the inner courtyard of prisoners.   

 

Similar in basic chromatic aesthetic conception of bold polychrome designs (as Tikal Mundo Perdido Polychrome bowl with lid MN 11131)  

Similar smooth painted red/black/white Cups/mugs Inca like those of Maya. 

Intricate textile designs, weaving, bold coloring, geometric and figurative combined shared by meso and south america, with climate effecting the preservation of samples limited primarily to south american arid regions but confirmed indirectly by ceramic and mural depictions in meso america, and the continuation of unique living indigenous mesoamerican textile traditions, such as dress worn in Mayan regions to this day.      

The totemic pillar, which represents primarily one entity, one god, one king, which unlike the obelisk, the ashokan pillar, the trajan column, represents not a message, an edict, a commemoration, or a triumph, but an idol which preserves the fundamental cylindrical or square form of the material intentionally.  In this sense, the monuments of mayan Qurigua, the wooden pole of pachacamac, or other wooden figures of peru as at the MAP Larco museum of Cuzco, the stone lanzon of chavin, the totem poles of the pacific NW of North America, however distant and diverse in meaning and style, and closer in meaning and form to each other than those of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, or Rome.   

 

Readily Distinguishable, intentional, 'other conscious' Ceramic variation in Mesoamerica, South America and the intermediate zone by 200 AD:  Colombia--Calima, San Augustin (southwest) to Sinu, Magdalena, Quimbaya, Tolima, Tumaco/La Tolita and Tierra Dentro, and then Narino (Southwest), Tayrona (northwest), and Musica (Central).   Venezuela 'hammerhead' / 'blockhead' figurines

Ecuador Jama Coaqua (?sp)   and El Salvador found distinctive clay seals---animal or human shapes with characteristic repeated lines.  Showing central-to south american connection in relative proximity.    

Continuities across time: Salinar-Moche evolution

Continiuitie: Paracas - Nasca evolution

Continuities: Pukara - Tiwanaku evolution

Continuities: Sican - Chimu evolution

besides incorporating much of the sican high culture, the chimu seem to have maintained an affinity to amazonian tribal culture in their love of amazonian feathers in woven form (amano museum) and their predilection for simple elongated wooden idols, etc.  

Growing Local Diversity in the pre Golden Age 1-300AD 

Vicus, Cajamarca, Recuay, Viru  

The Golden Age of American Civilizations 250AD to 625AD- and the creative highpoint of that Epoch from a global perspective.   

Mesoamerican Teotihuacan-Maya and Andean Moche-Nasca-Tiwanaku (other cultures coexisting as Nieveria) 

Expressive diversity at its height in Teotihuacan / Maya and Moche / Nasca, etc.  

Religious belief held with truely vivid imagination and passionate conviction, intensity of expression / lively expression

Persistent Continuity across space and time during Civilizational Transition: Decline, interaction and Transformation 650-900AD  

 

Inter South American parallels

Diety appearance:  two animal ended staffed gods, with sprouting heads, from head Chavin Raimondi Stela  to Tiwanaku Sun Gate Wiracocha (though variations in puma/snake vs. Puma or Llama/bird heads); 

the Cerro Sechin head trophies to the head trophies of Nasca and the Moche Decapitator God Aiapaec; Human Sacrifice in Moche and Inka; Mummies in Paracas/Nasca and Inka, Chachapoya, and elsewhere; Lanzon Monolith to Pachacamac Staff; and other affinities.  

Meso and South American Parallels

Caral and Malinalco circular courts joined by steps to rectagular elevated platformed structures. The Templo de Ehecatl at Cempoala, Veracruz (Group 4) as has a variation of this.    

Pronounced Cultural Variation and Technological  Sophistication Emerging in Andean Coastal and Midland regions: Sican, Chancay, Ica-Chincha, and the Oracle of Pachacamac.  Mesoamerican migration and flux: Toltec and Mixtec 800AD - 1000AD

The Emergence of Andean Empire: Chimu Coastal and Wari-Tiawanaku Highland Civilizations 800AD to 1200AD; the Groundwork for the Inka Empire of Four Territories--- Tawantinsuyu.  The Emergence of Mesoamerican Empire: Toltec and Mixtec.   

Multicultural Empire 1425 -1525, diplomacy, military conquest, integration and relocation: examples The rise of imperial absolutism and cult of personality in the meso-andean empires part of an emerging worldwide trend. The need for individual military victory / renewal of conquest / as qualification for coronation/kingship.  A note on theory of empire as a question of what point in time since originally all states are in a sense empires but in the early stages simply on a small geographical and demographic scale; and kingdoms simply the coalescing of disparate elements over time into one cultural entity with a shared sense of identity.  I.e. speed of growth/conquest the main differentiating factor.   Tawa(4)ntinSuyu(estate/provinces/territories/lands) 'The great andean sythesis' 'largest empire of the americas'  Panchacutec empire establisher.  Tupac Yupanqui as explorer king sending who to vinapu and marquesas?  Ayallu---extended family.   Panaca---elite lineage.  Mythogenesis---Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo from Lake Titicaca ca. 1200AD.
Chronicled by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega 1609 Comentarios Reales de los Incas idealized socialist society.   And Guaman Poma de Ayala (indigenous writer) doing field work gathering testimony and illustrations in his Neuva Cronica y Buen Gobeierno (sp?) Historical(sp?) (1600-1615).  Inca imperial style/reasons for success---experimental, risk taking nature, willingly adaptive/imitative/accomodating/accretive/incremental.  Tolerant / leaving culture religion as is reminiscent of ancient Persia.  Developing good surplus food accounting with quipu and (rock abacus?) and storage/management/distribution with huanucopampa.   



   

Inka:  Chachapoya (East-Amazonia), Guarco (coast), Collec (coast), Manta  (north), Quitu (Ecuador, stopped by the Shuar), Diaguita (Chile, stopped by Mapuche)  

Aztec:  

Meso and South American Foodstuffs

Substantial increase in reliable carbohydrate sources Instrumental in later world population growth 

Large edible Corn development from barely edible small husks in mesoamerica.  Tomatoes, beans, avocadoes, pumpkins, peppers cacao, also.  Diversity of potatoes in Andes developed, as well as peanuts from south america.   Coca in south america.   Cassava/Manioc/Yuca originated possibly with Mayas, staple food 3rd? in world present day?   Especially Africa, amazon.  Tapioca is derived from cassava.  Toxic if not processed properly.  Thus corn, potatoes, and cassava three of the five (rice and wheat/grains) main staples are from the Americas.

Maya foods corn Tamales and tortillas for everyone, with beans and meat for elites.  Commoners mostly corn derived dishes.  Elites eat seafood, turkey, iguanas, armadillos, monkeys, deer, rabbits,  

Versatility of Maya ruling classes--skillful artisanship as a mark of nobility, the noble man as himself a work of art, crafting of bone, teeth, etc.   

Weaving, stone carving, writing, etc. along with war and religious duties.  'Bunbu ryodo'

Mayan keystones/environmental sources of the imagination and aesthetic sensibility: quetzal bird, jaguar, corn, jade, blood,the sun.
Andean keystones/environmental sources--- the spondylus shell (Muyu), condor, the vicuna and llama and related camelids, the mountain peak, jaguar as mythical creature, the sun.  Seke---Lines

Mayan/mesoamerican olmec the human image or god image as humanoid with animal elements, vs the andean animal image a greater range of animal depictions for their own sake, fish as rays as nasca? and lobsters as the Moche, domesticated animals as dogs, and other animals and birds as owls.  Also greater foodstuff depictions.  Mayan and mesoamerican greater emphasis on the kingly image, or depiction of ordered arrays of human figures, or scenes from daily life, portraitures of huddling husband and wife, and in that sense are reminiscent of Egyptian grave goods.   The Mayan is closer in spirit to other major ancient continental royal cultures.  The Moche and Nasca are more closer aesthetically to tribal cultures.         

Cross-continental parallels among contemporary civilizations:   Monte Alban (Mexico) and Cerro Sechin (Peru); Mitla (Mexico) and Chan Chan (Peru).  Jaina Island (Yucatan Maya) blue ceramics and Jama Coaque (Ecuador) 

Mixteca and Chimu also share metallurgy skills and technology, not just architectural design.  

Cross-continental comparisons--Aztec vs Inkas--which was more advanced?  

Sophisticated in different ways, both extremely unique, both great builders.  Aztec writing, diverse artistic imagery.  Inka territorial extent, diverse cultural incorporation.  Both sacrifice central in belief system, for Aztec a political control/subjugation system.  Aztecs reminiscent of Assyrians; Inkas of Persians, more or less.  Rule by war and sacrificial terror vs rule by diplomacy and reciprocity of interest.  Aztecs' sculptural forms bold, powerful, large, conveying strength.   Less of a animistic sculptural tradition among Inkas.   

Distinctiveness of American design geometries

Unlike the Islamic in its combination of the asymmetric and bolder diagonal themes.  The Islamic being more condensed, smaller units aggregated and greater fillagre more faithfully geometric, intricate, symmetric in layout.  

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